Zambia was first colonized by the British South African Company in 1889, although it was not until 1924, when the company ceded administrative control to the British Crown (whereupon it became the colony of Northern Rhodesia), that serious exploitation of the country’s main natural resource, copper, began. From 1953 to 1963, the country found itself forming the northern part of the Central African Federation, essentially a pale form of apartheid, which enjoyed no support whatsoever among the black population. The colonial authorities ceded independence in 1964. The pre-independence elections
were won by Kaunda’s United National Independence Party. The country soon became involved in the war in Southern Rhodesia. Kaunda closed Zambia’s southern border and gave safe haven to cadres from Joshua Nkomo’s ZAPU party and its associated guerrilla army, ZIPRA.
Relations with the Zimbabweans have naturally improved since that country became independent in 1980 and Kaunda’s foreign policy focused elsewhere. Kaunda subsequently became a major regional statesman. He played a major part in the initiatives leading to independence in Namibia and South Africa and, in the 1990s, chaired both the Organization of African Unity and the ‘front-line’ group of Southern African states confronting the South African apartheid regime. He was also involved in the political settlement in Angola.
Kaunda’s forays abroad tended to lead to neglect of Zambia’s domestic agenda. Zambia was a one-party state from 1973 until 1991. During 1990, domestic unrest sparked off by price rises developed into demands for a more democratic system of government. Kaunda promised a national referendum on the issue but postponed it after further disturbances in July 1990. The principal opposition to the disintegrating UNIP was the Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD), led by Frederick Chiluba, chair of the Zambian Council of Trades Unions, the focus of much opposition activity under the one-party state. The election took place on 1 October 1991 and gave Chiluba a substantial majority.
The new administration adopted the standard set of IMF-approved, market-oriented reforms (subsidy cuts, trade liberalization, privatization) and resumed debt repayments. International financial and development aid – which were suspended towards the end of Kaunda’s tenure – were resumed. More importantly, Zambia has since gained considerable benefit from the Western debt relief program, which wiped out a fair proportion of Zambia’s foreign debt.
On the political front, Zambia has managed the transition from one-party state to political pluralism reasonably smoothly. In October 1996, Chiluba was returned for a second term. However, after the election, the Government took increasingly repressive measures against political opposition, resulting almost inevitably in a sharp escalation of political violence and unrest. This culminated with an attempted coup by disaffected junior army officers in October 1997. The opposition kept a lower profile in the immediate aftermath but still managed a serious challenge to the MMD at the most recent national elections in December 2001. However, despite their best efforts, the MMD emerged as comfortable winners of both the presidential and national assembly polls. MMD candidate Levy Mwanawasa – hand-picked by Chiluba to take over from him as leader of the MMD – was duly installed as President. In the National Assembly, the MMD was returned as the largest party but, lacking an overall majority, rules in alliance with a group of smaller parties.
Despite his political debt, Mwanawasa did not prevent the arraignment of Chiluba in early 2003, on charges of corruption related to massive illicit diversion of state funds. This is not the only illustration of Mwanawasa’s single-mindedness. In October 2002 – as part of a decision which provoked praise and criticism in equal measure – Zambia refused to accept genetically modified maize, despite strong pressure from the US, to meet food shortages.
GovernmentThe present constitution dates from 1973. Legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly with 135 members, 125 of whom are elected every five years by universal adult suffrage (the remaining 10 are Presidential appointees). Executive power is held by the President who appoints a Cabinet, headed by a Prime Minister, to conduct the administration of the Government.
EconomyThe Zambian economy relies heavily on the country’s mineral wealth, particularly copper (of which Zambia is one of the world’s largest producers), and also cobalt and zinc. These account for the bulk of export earnings and provide essential raw materials for Zambia’s manufacturing industry, which accounts for over one-third of national output. Apart from raw material processing, the manufacturing sector includes vehicle assembly and oil refining as well as the production of fertilizers, textiles, construction materials and a variety of consumer products.
Despite the role played by industry (unusually high by African standards), export earnings were steadily declining throughout the 1990s, mainly as a result of persistently low commodity prices. One stark illustration of the trend was the closure in 2002 of the Konkola copper mine (the country’s largest and a major source of government revenue) as being no longer viable.
Agriculture produces 14% of GDP and employs 85% of the population. Maize and cattle are the main earners; other crops (cassava, millet, sorghum and beans) are produced mainly for domestic consumption but have to be supplemented by substantial food imports. Zambia’s hydroelectric projects have allowed it self-sufficiency in energy.
Economic policy changed radically during the 1990s when the government sought the backing of the IMF in tackling Zambia’s serious financial problems. With some difficulty, many of the IMF-imposed measures were put into effect. More recently, Zambia has been a beneficiary of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to reduce the external debts of the world’s poorest countries, but still owes over US$6 billion.
The IMF is still involved with Zambia, although the current Zambian administration has proved reluctant to implement some of its demands, particularly privatization of remaining state assets. The economy grew by 6% in 2006.
Zambia is a member of the Southern African Development Council (SADC).
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